Conclusion:
Xerxes' legacy
The Persian Empire was the largest ancient
empire to have ever existed taking approximately fifty years to be built by Cyrus
the Great, Cambyses and Darius, and later being extended by Xerxes. Some may
judge Xerxes as an incompetent leader, as he lacked soldierly proficiency. But
what with his power over his empire, made up for what he lacked as a military
leader. Xerxes, during his twenty-one year reign, was successfully able to hold
an entire empire together that contained fifty million subjects, which tells
historians that his organisation and administration of the empire was perhaps commendable. From what is previously stated and
applied, apparent is that Xerxes presented himself as a successful leader, and his
military ineptitude in areas of his reign, however, led to his successful
administrative qualities, ensuring that his journey for revenge due to his
kingship can be overlooked.
Thus, as justified, Xerxes I was in fact a highly detrimental figure in the success of the Persian Wars, greatly defining further outcomes within conflicts, yet, contributed nonetheless to the antiquity of Persia and its history. Consequently, it is appropriate to conclude that Xerxes’ notoriety was indeed due to his military ineptitude and desire for revenge.
Thus, as justified, Xerxes I was in fact a highly detrimental figure in the success of the Persian Wars, greatly defining further outcomes within conflicts, yet, contributed nonetheless to the antiquity of Persia and its history. Consequently, it is appropriate to conclude that Xerxes’ notoriety was indeed due to his military ineptitude and desire for revenge.
Source Analysis
Herodotus
Life and Death:
Herodotus was a Greek historian who was born in Hilicarnassus, Caria (modern-day Bodrum, Turkey) and lived in the fifth century BC (484 – 425BC). Widely referred to as the “The Father of History”, he was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically and critically, and then to arrange them into a historiographical narrative.
Background on Author:
While little is known of the details of his life, it seems certain that he came from a wealthy, aristocratic family in Asia Minor who could afford to pay for his education. His skill in writing is thought to be evidence of a thorough course in the best schools of his day. He wrote in Ionian Greek and was clearly well read. His ability to travel, seemingly at will, also argues for a man of some means. It is thought he served in the army as a Hoplite in that his descriptions of battle are quite precise and always told from the point of view of a foot soldier. He came to live in the Greek Colony of Thurii, in Italy, where he edited and revised the Histories later in life. He had also lived in Athens and, at some point, it is thought he returned there. Scholars consider it likely that he died in Athens of the plague sometime between 425 and 413 BCE. His fame was so great that many different cities (Athens and Thurii among them) claimed to be the site of his funeral and grave and monuments were erected in his honour.
The lasting significance of his work continues to be appreciated by millions of people today and he is considered a primary source for reliable information on the ancient world he observed and wrote about.
Source Reliability:
Although some of his stories were fanciful and other possibly inaccurate, he claimed he was reporting only what had been told to him. Little is known of his personal history.
While The Histories were occasionally criticised in antiquity, modern historians and philosophers generally take a positive view. Despite the controversy, Herodotus still serves as the primary, and often only, source for events in the Greek world, Persian Empire, and the region generally in the two centuries leading up until his own day. Herodotus, like many ancient historians, preferred an element of show to purely analytic history, aiming to give pleasure with “exciting events, great dramas, and bizarre exotica.” As such, certain passages have been the subject of controversy and even some doubt, both in antiquity and today.
The accuracy of the works of Herodotus has been controversial since his own era. Cicero, Aristotle, Josephus, Duris of Samos, Harpocration and Plutarch all commented on this controversy. Generally, though, he was then, and especially is now, regarded as reliable.
Criticism of Herodotus’ work seems to have originated among Athenians who took exception to his account of the Battle of Marathon (490BCE) and, specifically, which families were due the most honour for the victory over the Persians. More serous criticism of his work has to do with the credibility of his travels.
A.B. De Selincourt
Life and Death:
Aubrey de Selincourt (7 June 1894 – 20 December 19962) was an English writer, classical scholar and translator. He is bets known for his translations (all for Penguin Classics) of Livy’s The Early History of Rome (Books I to V) and The War with Hannibal (Books XXI to XXX), Herodotus’ Histories, and Arrian’s The Campaigns of Alexander.
Background on Author:
There is little, to no information on this author, yet there is knowledge that he was an English scholar and translator.
Source Reliability:
A schoolmaster of genius for 26 years, we assume that he is a reliable source, as he studied Herodotus’ Histories, and has been used as a translation for numerous sources throughout his studies.
M.A. Dandamaev
Life and Death:
Muhammad Abdoulkadyrovitch Dandamayev, as he is also known, born September 2, 1928 in the village of Unchuckatl of Dagestan, the USSR (now Russian Federation).
Background on Author:
Chief Researcher at the IOM RAS, a Doctor of Sciences and History. His major research interests include the Ancient Persian Empire; history, social institutions and culture of Babylonia in the first millennium BC.
Source Reliability:
There is, once again, little basic research about this author, however, his sources claim to be reliable translations based on factual evidence. Based on his meticulous study of texts, mostly cuneiform, legal and economic documents, mentioning Iranians in Achaemenid Babylonia (539-330 BC), Doctor Dandamayev has reconstructed the social, economic, and administrative life of the Persians and other personalities.
Scott-Kilvert
Life and Death:
Ian Scott-Kilvert (26 May 1917 – 8 October 1989) was a British editor and translator.
Background on Author:
He worked for the British Council, editing a series of pamphlet essays on British writers. Amongst his translations were several classical texts, including Plutarch and Polybius, for the Penguin Classics series.
Source Reliability:
As a general writer and an expert in English literature, it is safe to say that his sources are reliable, through translations. There is little evidence on his translation history.
Herodotus
Life and Death:
Herodotus was a Greek historian who was born in Hilicarnassus, Caria (modern-day Bodrum, Turkey) and lived in the fifth century BC (484 – 425BC). Widely referred to as the “The Father of History”, he was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically and critically, and then to arrange them into a historiographical narrative.
Background on Author:
While little is known of the details of his life, it seems certain that he came from a wealthy, aristocratic family in Asia Minor who could afford to pay for his education. His skill in writing is thought to be evidence of a thorough course in the best schools of his day. He wrote in Ionian Greek and was clearly well read. His ability to travel, seemingly at will, also argues for a man of some means. It is thought he served in the army as a Hoplite in that his descriptions of battle are quite precise and always told from the point of view of a foot soldier. He came to live in the Greek Colony of Thurii, in Italy, where he edited and revised the Histories later in life. He had also lived in Athens and, at some point, it is thought he returned there. Scholars consider it likely that he died in Athens of the plague sometime between 425 and 413 BCE. His fame was so great that many different cities (Athens and Thurii among them) claimed to be the site of his funeral and grave and monuments were erected in his honour.
The lasting significance of his work continues to be appreciated by millions of people today and he is considered a primary source for reliable information on the ancient world he observed and wrote about.
Source Reliability:
Although some of his stories were fanciful and other possibly inaccurate, he claimed he was reporting only what had been told to him. Little is known of his personal history.
While The Histories were occasionally criticised in antiquity, modern historians and philosophers generally take a positive view. Despite the controversy, Herodotus still serves as the primary, and often only, source for events in the Greek world, Persian Empire, and the region generally in the two centuries leading up until his own day. Herodotus, like many ancient historians, preferred an element of show to purely analytic history, aiming to give pleasure with “exciting events, great dramas, and bizarre exotica.” As such, certain passages have been the subject of controversy and even some doubt, both in antiquity and today.
The accuracy of the works of Herodotus has been controversial since his own era. Cicero, Aristotle, Josephus, Duris of Samos, Harpocration and Plutarch all commented on this controversy. Generally, though, he was then, and especially is now, regarded as reliable.
Criticism of Herodotus’ work seems to have originated among Athenians who took exception to his account of the Battle of Marathon (490BCE) and, specifically, which families were due the most honour for the victory over the Persians. More serous criticism of his work has to do with the credibility of his travels.
A.B. De Selincourt
Life and Death:
Aubrey de Selincourt (7 June 1894 – 20 December 19962) was an English writer, classical scholar and translator. He is bets known for his translations (all for Penguin Classics) of Livy’s The Early History of Rome (Books I to V) and The War with Hannibal (Books XXI to XXX), Herodotus’ Histories, and Arrian’s The Campaigns of Alexander.
Background on Author:
There is little, to no information on this author, yet there is knowledge that he was an English scholar and translator.
Source Reliability:
A schoolmaster of genius for 26 years, we assume that he is a reliable source, as he studied Herodotus’ Histories, and has been used as a translation for numerous sources throughout his studies.
M.A. Dandamaev
Life and Death:
Muhammad Abdoulkadyrovitch Dandamayev, as he is also known, born September 2, 1928 in the village of Unchuckatl of Dagestan, the USSR (now Russian Federation).
Background on Author:
Chief Researcher at the IOM RAS, a Doctor of Sciences and History. His major research interests include the Ancient Persian Empire; history, social institutions and culture of Babylonia in the first millennium BC.
Source Reliability:
There is, once again, little basic research about this author, however, his sources claim to be reliable translations based on factual evidence. Based on his meticulous study of texts, mostly cuneiform, legal and economic documents, mentioning Iranians in Achaemenid Babylonia (539-330 BC), Doctor Dandamayev has reconstructed the social, economic, and administrative life of the Persians and other personalities.
Scott-Kilvert
Life and Death:
Ian Scott-Kilvert (26 May 1917 – 8 October 1989) was a British editor and translator.
Background on Author:
He worked for the British Council, editing a series of pamphlet essays on British writers. Amongst his translations were several classical texts, including Plutarch and Polybius, for the Penguin Classics series.
Source Reliability:
As a general writer and an expert in English literature, it is safe to say that his sources are reliable, through translations. There is little evidence on his translation history.
Biographic Details
Amos, H. & Lang, A., 1996. These Were The Greeks. 12
ed. Chester Springs, Peninsula: Dufour Editions, Inc..
Brondou, C., 2010. Xerxes, King of Persia. [Online]
Available at: http://www.findingdulcinea.com/features/profiles/x/xerxes.html
[Accessed 12 November 2014].
Chrastina, P., 1999. King of Xerxes Invades Greece. [Online]
Available at: http://www.adam2.org/eastons/ebd/xerxes.html
[Accessed 15 November 2014].
De Selincourt, A., 2001. The World of Herodotus. 2 ed. London: Phoenix Press.
Dictionary.com, LLC, 2014. Dictionary definitions. [Online]
Available at: http://dictionary.reference.com/
[Accessed 15 November 2014].
Haskew, M. E., 2006. Greco-Persian War: Xerxes' Invasion. [Online]
Available at: http://www.historynet.com/greco-persian-wars-xerxes-invasion.htm
[Accessed 15 November 2014].
Hurley, T., Medcalf, P., Murray, C. & Rolph, J., 2008. Antiquity 2: Interpreting the Past. South Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
International AAAI Conference, 2012. Xerxes I of Persia. [Online]
Available at: http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Xerxes_I_of_Persia.html
[Accessed 12 November 2014].
Lawless, J. & Cameron, K., 1997. "Xerxes" in Personalities from the Past. South Melbourne: Lawless, J (ed.).
Mark, J. J., 2011. Xerxes I. [Online]
Available at: http://www.ancient.eu/Xerxes_I/
[Accessed 12 November 2014].
Mark, J. J., 2011. Xerxes I. [Online]
Available at: http://www.ancient.eu/Xerxes_I/
[Accessed 15 November 2014].
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2014. The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 B.C.). [Online]
Available at: http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/hd/acha/hd_acha.htm
[Accessed 12 November 2014].
Strauss, B., 2005. The Rebirth of Narrative. Historically Speaking, 6(6), p. 5.
Total War Center, 2000-2014. Why did the Persians Fail to Conquer Greece?. [Online]
Available at: http://www.twcenter.net/forums/showthread.php?160595-Why-did-the-Persians-Fail-to-Conquer-Greece
[Accessed 15 November 2014].
Wik, M., 2005. Ionian Revolt. [Online]
Available at: http://messagenetcommresearch.com/myths/ppt/Ionian_Revolt_1.html
[Accessed 12 November 2014].
Sources
Herodotus, The Histories, translated by A.B. De Selincourt, 1996, Penguin London
M. A. Dandamaev, A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire, Brill, Leiden, 1989
Plutarch, Themistocles, translated by I. Scott-Kilvert
Brondou, C., 2010. Xerxes, King of Persia. [Online]
Available at: http://www.findingdulcinea.com/features/profiles/x/xerxes.html
[Accessed 12 November 2014].
Chrastina, P., 1999. King of Xerxes Invades Greece. [Online]
Available at: http://www.adam2.org/eastons/ebd/xerxes.html
[Accessed 15 November 2014].
De Selincourt, A., 2001. The World of Herodotus. 2 ed. London: Phoenix Press.
Dictionary.com, LLC, 2014. Dictionary definitions. [Online]
Available at: http://dictionary.reference.com/
[Accessed 15 November 2014].
Haskew, M. E., 2006. Greco-Persian War: Xerxes' Invasion. [Online]
Available at: http://www.historynet.com/greco-persian-wars-xerxes-invasion.htm
[Accessed 15 November 2014].
Hurley, T., Medcalf, P., Murray, C. & Rolph, J., 2008. Antiquity 2: Interpreting the Past. South Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
International AAAI Conference, 2012. Xerxes I of Persia. [Online]
Available at: http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Xerxes_I_of_Persia.html
[Accessed 12 November 2014].
Lawless, J. & Cameron, K., 1997. "Xerxes" in Personalities from the Past. South Melbourne: Lawless, J (ed.).
Mark, J. J., 2011. Xerxes I. [Online]
Available at: http://www.ancient.eu/Xerxes_I/
[Accessed 12 November 2014].
Mark, J. J., 2011. Xerxes I. [Online]
Available at: http://www.ancient.eu/Xerxes_I/
[Accessed 15 November 2014].
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2014. The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 B.C.). [Online]
Available at: http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/hd/acha/hd_acha.htm
[Accessed 12 November 2014].
Strauss, B., 2005. The Rebirth of Narrative. Historically Speaking, 6(6), p. 5.
Total War Center, 2000-2014. Why did the Persians Fail to Conquer Greece?. [Online]
Available at: http://www.twcenter.net/forums/showthread.php?160595-Why-did-the-Persians-Fail-to-Conquer-Greece
[Accessed 15 November 2014].
Wik, M., 2005. Ionian Revolt. [Online]
Available at: http://messagenetcommresearch.com/myths/ppt/Ionian_Revolt_1.html
[Accessed 12 November 2014].
Sources
Herodotus, The Histories, translated by A.B. De Selincourt, 1996, Penguin London
M. A. Dandamaev, A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire, Brill, Leiden, 1989
Plutarch, Themistocles, translated by I. Scott-Kilvert